Notes

  1. “#Unite4Heritage campaign launched by UNESCO Director-General in Baghdad,” UNESCO World Heritage Centre, March 28, 2015, https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1254. ↩
  2. Robbie Gramer, “UNESCO Fights Back as ISIS Tries to Stamp Out Culture,” Foreign Policy, April 12, 2017, https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/04/12/unesco-united-nations-isis-islamic-state-cultural-antiquities-trade-irina-bokova-refugees-heritage/. ↩
  3. UNESCO Constitution, November 16, 1945 (came into force November 4, 1946), http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=15244&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html. ↩
  4. Nations Encyclopedia, “The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)—Creation,” https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/United-Nations-Related-Agencies/The-United-Nations-Educational-Scientific-and-Cultural-Organization-UNESCO-CREATION.html#ixzz6iaaYugbY. ↩
  5. Quoted in UNESCO, “Remarks of the Honourable Russell E. Train,” World Heritage Convention 30th Anniversary, Venice, Italy, November 16, 2002, https://whc.unesco.org/archive/websites/venice2002/speeches/pdf/train.pdf. ↩
  6. UNESCO, “Remarks of the Honourable Russell E. Train,” https://whc.unesco.org/archive/websites/venice2002/speeches/pdf/train.pdf. ↩
  7. Franceinfo, “Les mausolées de la plus grande mosquée de Tombouctou ont été détruits,” December 6, 2016, https://www.francetvinfo.fr/culture/patrimoine/les-mausolees-de-la-plus-grande-mosquee-de-tombouctou-ont-ete-detruits_3330445.html. ↩
  8. UNESCO, “World Heritage List: Timbuktu,” https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/119. ↩
  9. Minusma, UN Missions, “Cultural Heritage,” https://minusma.unmissions.org/en/cultural-heritage. ↩
  10. UN Security Council, “Security Council Extends Mandate of United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali, Adopting Resolution 2423 (2018),” press release, UN doc. SC/13400, June 28, 2018, https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/sc13400.doc.htm. ↩
  11. Blue Shield International, “Who We Are,” https://theblueshield.org/about-us/what-is-blue-shield. ↩
  12. Andrew Curry, “Here Are the Ancient Sites ISIS Has Damaged and Destroyed,” National Geographic, September 1, 2015, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/09/150901-isis-destruction-looting-ancient-sites-iraq-syria-archaeology/. ↩
  13. UNESCO, “Syria’s Six World Heritage Sites Placed on List of World Heritage in Danger,” https://en.unesco.org/news/syria’s-six-world-heritage-sites-placed-list-world-heritage-danger. ↩
  14. Kareem Shaheen and Ian Black, “Beheaded Syrian Scholar Refused to Lead Isis to Hidden Palmyra Antiquities,” The Guardian, August 19, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/18/isis-beheads-archaeologist-syria. ↩
  15. UN Security Council, “Security Council Unanimously Adopts Resolution 2139 (2014) to Ease Aid Delivery to Syrians, Provide Relief from ‘Chilling Darkness,’” press release, UN doc. SC/11292, February 22, 2014, https://www.un.org/press/en/2014/sc11292.doc.htm. ↩
  16. UN secretary-general, “Statement by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, UNESCO Director-General Irina Bokova and UN and League of Arab States Joint Special Representative for Syria Lakhdar Brahimi: The Destruction of Syria’s Cultural Heritage Must Stop,” March 12, 2014, https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/statement/2014-03-12/statement-un-secretary-general-ban-ki-moon-unesco-director-general ↩
  17. UNESCO, “Director-General Denounces Cultural Cleansing during Visit to Iraq,” November 4, 2014, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/rio-20/single-view/news/director_general_denounces_cultural_cleansing_during_visit_t/. ↩
  18. UN News, “Destruction of Cultural Heritage Is an Attack on People and Their Fundamental Rights—UN Expert,” October 27, 2016, https://news.un.org/en/story/2016/10/543912-destruction-cultural-heritage-attack-people-and-their-fundamental-rights-un. ↩
  19. UNESCO, “The UNESCO Cultural Conventions: A Tool for Sustainable Development,” http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/culture-and-development/the-future-we-want-the-role-of-culture/the-unesco-cultural-conventions. ↩
  20. French National Assembly, “Autorisant l’adhésion de la France au deuxième protocole relatif à la convention de La Haye de 1954 pour la protection des biens culturels en cas de conflit armé” (Authorizing France’s accession to the Second Protocol to the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict), doc. no. 4263, November 30, 2016, http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/14/projets/pl4263.asp. ↩
  21. UK Parliament, “Ratification of the 1954 Hague Convention and Protocols: Statement Made on 12 September 2017,” doc. no. Statement UIN HCWS125, https://questions-statements.parliament.uk/written-statements/detail/2017-09-12/HCWS125. ↩
  22. ICRC, “Agreement between the ICRC and UNESCO on the Protection of Cultural Property—Q&A,” March 8, 2016, https://www.icrc.org/en/document/cultural-property-protected-in-armed-conflict. ↩
  23. For the text of the convention, adopted on November 14, 1970, see http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13039&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html. ↩
  24. For the text of the convention, adopted June 24, 1995, see https://www.unidroit.org/instruments/cultural-property/1995-convention. ↩
  25. UNESCO, “Second Meeting of States Parties to the 1970 Convention,” http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/illicit-trafficking-of-cultural-property/meeting-of-states-parties/2nd-msp-2012/. ↩
  26. Rachel Shabi, “Looted in Syria—and Sold in London: The British Antiques Shops Dealing in Artefacts Smuggled by Isis,” The Guardian, July 3, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/03/antiquities-looted-by-isis-end-up-in-london-shops. ↩
  27. UNESCO, “End of 36th Session of the World Heritage Committee Marked by Concern for World Heritage Sites in Mali,” July 6, 2012, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-view/news/end_of_36th_session_of_the_world_heritage_committee_marked_b/. ↩
  28. UNESCO, “Syria’s Six World Heritage Sites,” https://en.unesco.org/news/syria’s-six-world-heritage-sites-placed-list-world-heritage-danger. ↩
  29. European Parliament, “Protection of Cultural Heritage in Armed Conflicts,” briefing, March 2016, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2016/579081/EPRS_BRI(2016)579081_EN.pdf. ↩
  30. For the text of the convention, adopted October 27, 2003, see https://ich.unesco.org/en/basic-texts-00503. ↩
  31. Minusma, UN Missions, “Cultural Heritage.” ↩
  32. UNESCO, “Strategy for the Reinforcement of UNESCO’s Action for the Protection of Culture and the Promotion of Cultural Pluralism in the Event of Armed Conflict,” https://en.unesco.org/heritage-at-risk/strategy-culture-armed-conflict. For the text of the strategy, see UN doc. 38/C/49, November 2, 2015, https://en.unesco.org/system/files/235186e1.pdf. ↩
  33. See the strategy document, UN doc. 38/C/49, article 55.4. ↩
  34. The strategy specifically indicates that the term “cultural cleansing” is not a legal term, and was used by me for the first time in a public statement on the situation in Iraq in August 2014, and that it has since been used in public statements, speeches, and interviews to raise awareness of the systematic and deliberate nature of attacks on cultural heritage and diversity perpetrated by violent extremist groups in Syria and Iraq. ↩
  35. The Responsibility to Protect is an international norm that seeks to ensure that the international community never again fails to halt the mass atrocity crimes of genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. The concept emerged in response to the failure of the international community to adequately respond to mass atrocities committed in Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia during the 1990s. See Global Centre for the Responsibility to Protect, “What Is R2P?” https://www.globalr2p.org/what-is-r2p/. ↩
  36. UNESCO, “International Expert Meeting on the Responsibility to Protect as Applied to the Protection of Cultural Heritage,” December 3, 2015, https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1398. ↩
  37. UNESCO, “Expert Meeting on the ‘Responsibility to Protect’ and the Protection of Cultural Heritage: Recommendations,” http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/pdf/R2P-Recommendations-EN.pdf. ↩
  38. For the text of the protocol, adopted June 8, 1977, see https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/1595a804df7efd6bc125641400640d89/f6c8b9fee14a77fdc125641e0052b079?OpenDocument. ↩
  39. UNOSAT is a UN program providing satellite imagery through the UN Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR). See UNITAR, https://www.unitar.org/sustainable-development-goals/satellite-analysis-and-applied-research. ↩
  40. For the text of the resolution, see United Nations Security Council Resolution 2199 (2015), UN doc. S/RES/2199 (2015), February 12, 2015, https://daccess-ods.un.org/TMP/3096605.5393219.html. ↩
  41. Mark Kersten, “Prosecuting Crimes against Cultural Property in Northern Mali: Why It Matters,” Justice in Conflict, August 21, 2012, https://justiceinconflict.org/2012/08/21/prosecuting-crimes-against-cultural-property-in-northern-mali-why-it-matters/. ↩
  42. ICC, “Case Information Sheet: Situation in the Republic of Mali — The Prosecutor v. Ahmad Al Faqi Al Mahdi,” doc. no. ICC-PIDS-CIS-MAL-01-08/16_Eng, updated March 20, 2018, https://www.icc-cpi.int/CaseInformationSheets/Al-MahdiEng.pdf. ↩
  43. See Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, July 17, 1998, article 8.2.b.ix, https://www.icc-cpi.int/resource-library/documents/rs-eng.pdf. ↩
  44. ICC, “The ICC Office of the Prosecutor and UNESCO Sign Letter of Intent to Strengthen Cooperation on the Protection of Cultural Heritage,” press release, November 6, 2017, https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=171106_OTP_Unesco. ↩
  45. UNESCO, “The Bonn Declaration on World Heritage,” https://whc.unesco.org/document/147735. ↩
  46. Vatican News, “Document on Human Fraternity for World Peace and Living Together: Full Text,” https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2019-02/pope-francis-uae-declaration-with-al-azhar-grand-imam.html. ↩
  47. UNESCO, “Standing with President Hollande, Vice-President Biden, to Defend Cultural Heritage,” September 21, 2016, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-view/news/standing_with_president_hollande_vice_president_biden_to_d/. ↩
  48. Italian Government and UNESCO, “Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the Italian Republic and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (‘UNESCO’) on the Italian National ‘Task Force in the Framework of UNESCO’s Global Coalition Unite4Heritage’ for Initiatives in Favor of Countries Facing Emergencies That May Affect the Protection and Safeguarding of Culture and the Promotion of Cultural Pluralism,” Rome, February 16, 2016, https://www.beniculturali.it/mibac/multimedia/MiBAC/documents/1455616287505_2._Memorandum_of_Understanding___11_II_2016_DRAFT_Finale_UNESCO_versione_Italia.pdf. ↩
  49. ONU Info, “Au Mali, Bokova réaffirme l’engagement de l’UNESCO à restaurer le patrimoine culturel du pays,” February 3, 2013, https://news.un.org/fr/story/2013/02/260882-au-mali-bokova-reaffirme-lengagement-de-lunesco-restaurer-le-patrimoine. ↩
  50. For the text of the resolution, see https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/s_res_2347.pdf. ↩
  51. For the text of the November 2, 2001, declaration, see http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13179&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html. ↩
  52. CISAC, “CISAC Unveils First Global Map of Cultural and Creative Industries at UNESCO,” December 4, 2015, https://www.cisac.org/Newsroom/articles/cisac-unveils-first-global-map-cultural-and-creative-industries-unesco. ↩
  53. For the text of the document, see https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/documents/activity-638-98.pdf. ↩
  54. UNESCO, “2015 Recommendation Concerning the Protection and Promotion of Museums and Collections,” http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/museums/recommendation-on-the-protection-and-promotion-of-museums-and-collections/. ↩