Abstracts

Two exceptional Greek original bronze statues were discovered underwater at Riace Marina (Calabria, Italy), in 1972. The statues represent a pair of warriors or athletes and are commonly labeled Statue A and Statue B. On the basis of stylistic studies, many authors date Statue A to 470–460 BC, and Statue B to 440–430 BC (Arias 1986).

During the restoration campaign carried out in Rome at the ICR, the inner cavities of the bronzes were explored and cleaned by remote-controlled mechanical arms. Here we report the archaeometric investigation of 12 metal samples taken from the inside of the statues: 3 bronze and 1 lead samples from Statue A; and 3 welding alloys, 3 bronze, and 2 lead samples from Statue B.

Chemical and textural investigation of the Cu-alloy samples was performed by SEM-EDS, EPMA, and metallographic analyses on polished cross sections. The data are discussed and compared with literature data available for coeval statues. Moreover, the lead isotopic compositions of selected samples were investigated by MC-ICP-MS. Comparison of the results with existing Pb-isotope databases (OXALID; BRETTSCAIFE.net; Alpine Archaeocopper Project) shows that the copper used for Statue A is compatible with western Mediterranean deposits, whereas the copper of Statue B fit with eastern Mediterranean ores. The isotopic signals of the welding samples from Statue B show a different provenance, possibly related to the age of the welding operations. The lead of the tenons of both statues has a very well defined isotopic signal compatible with a Greek source.

The fragmentary bronze statue (Louvre Museum, inv. Br 4388; 63.5 cm x 29 cm) was discovered in ploughed land near a rich Roman villa in Epiais-Rhus, northwestern France, which preserves the remains of a Gallo-Roman city. After being used as a flowerpot for some years, the statue was acquired by the Louvre in 1959 (Piganiol 1961, 295). A wing was discovered around the same area in 1977, which has been attributed to this statue and reattached to its back. The bronze sculpture depicts Eros as a baby; its prototype derives from a Hellenistic model (Mattusch 1996, 160–68). The Sleeping Eros type is rare among extant large bronzes: only few other examples are known, such as the remarkable Sleeping Eros in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (Hemingway 2015) and a head from Volubilis (Boube-Piccot 1969, no. 174, 160–61, plates 90–92).

In order to investigate the manufacture and the dating of the Louvre’s statue, a technological study was carried out at the C2RMF. Study of the inner wall was eased by the open access at the back of the statue, and completed by X-radiography. Elemental composition was determined on micro-samples analyzed by PIXE. The statue appears to have been cast in nine separate hollow parts mainly by the indirect lost-wax process. A tin bronze with a high lead content (Sn: 7 wt%; Pb: 25 wt%) was used. The separately cast parts were then assembled using flow fusion welding or brazing, depending on the shape of the join (in basins or using a platform). Some other clues (such as fingerprints in the wax) helped to reconstruct each step of the manufacture with more detail and to qualify the Sleeping Eros from Epiais-Rhus as a large bronze statue elaborated during the second century AD.

This study compares analytical and methodological variations present in the copper alloys (bronze and brass) used to craft weapons (i.e., helmets, swords, spearheads) and ornaments (i.e., Classical Greek sculptures). IPCE’s Scientific Department made numerous analytic studies to evaluate the chemical stability and physical integrity of the artifacts. X-ray, XFR, and MEB-SEM were performed to determine composition and the presence of active corrosion.

The study is made by comparing pieces from various Spanish state museums, which have been analyzed and have undergone restoration and conservation during recent years by the Subdirectory of the Spanish Historical Heritage Institute.

Since ancient times, the discovery of fakes has been a hot topic: in the course of our scientific research we quite often discover interesting examples of ancient imitations of valuable items or coins. They give us a glimpse into what was considered precious at the time in which they were produced, and represent a welcome addition to our knowledge.

The discovery of modern fakes or forgeries (i.e., fraudulently altered ancient pieces) is a very different matter. Unrecognized fakes mar our perception of antiquity and must be identified and removed from the cases of our museums.

Identification studies of fakes are just as different and variable as the multitude of objects that come under our eyes while studying museum collections. In this paper, some of the most skillful ways of aging freshly made objects, for example, by applying some kind of a fake patina, are presented; “wrong” technical details are described; and several examples of ancient and modern fakes are discussed by highlighting their peculiarities.

This poster discusses the major issues related to modern studies on objects and materials of historical or cultural heritage. These usually involve the use of non-destructive and microanalytical techniques, which are employed for various purposes and particularly for cultural heritage. The conservation and restoration of materials and artifacts require analytical methods that can yield information on the chemical nature and composition of selected parts of artifacts to elucidate their provenance; on the state of alteration of the object as a result of short-, medium-, and long-term exposure to environmental conditions; and on the effectiveness of conservation strategies during and after application. This poster describes the application of non-destructive and microanalytical techniques to an ibis statue of the Late Period in Egyptian civilization, which was excavated from Tuna el-Gabal in Al-Minya Governate by Cairo University in 1946; the object is currently in the inorganic storeroom at Grand Egyptian Museum Conservation Center. It is obvious from visual examination and analytical techniques that the object was made from a variety of materials. Previous interventions showed contemporary support by the wooden base with iron pins and wire, and determined the nature of the corrosion product on the statue’s metal surface (identified by XRD analysis and SEM-EDS). The statue is missing part of a leg, and this poster will discuss possible and suitable ways to extend the statue’s life with safe and stable material (Plexiglas), which does not react with any material used in the artifacts of the ancient Egyptian civilization.

In the winter of 2005, an emergency archaeological excavation was carried out at the village of Chubtarash, in the Kargah Valley near the city of Khorramabad, western Iran. Some artifacts from the middle of the Parthian period (about first century AD) were found. The most important find of the excavation was a large metallic bathtub-like coffin in which a skeleton was found with two gold strips covering its eyes and mouth. The coffin has four handles that are joined to the tub-like body with pins. The coffin now is preserved in Falak-ol-Aflak Museum of Khorramabad.

To identify the manufacturing process of the coffin, a technical examination was performed by visual examination, SEM-EDS analysis, and optical microscopy (metallography).

The results showed that the coffin’s body is made of binary copper-tin (bronze) alloy. Other elements such as arsenic, lead, zinc, and nickel are detected as minor/trace elements. The handles also are made of tin bronze alloy, but with a different amount of tin. The observations and microstructural examination of samples revealed that the tub-like body of the coffin was manufactured in one piece, and a cycle of mechanical working and heat treatment was applied in order to shape the coffin. The bronze handles were made by casting, and some work was done on them to finish the final shape. The technical examinations on this individual bronze coffin from Iran illuminated some aspects of archaeometallurgical activities in the Parthian period of Iran.

The archaeometallurgical study of the metal artifacts is fundamental to their analysis and valorization. Material analyses and technological interpretations can contribute substantially to the revelation of cultural contents, which are complementary to historical and archaeological interpretations. Archaeometallurgy, in addition to reconstructing the history of objects’ technological development based on compositional and structural evidence, can allow discrimination between originals and replicas, recognizing possible integrations. It can also shed light on the creative process.

After about half a century of investigations into the manufacturing processes of ancient large bronzes, a great deal of material data has been collected on several masterpieces. However, the interpretation of the evidence and analytical measurements can sometimes be very complex, and results are often equivocal. Naked-eye observations, radiography, and some chemical analyses rarely permit the prompt determination of raw materials, crafting procedures of the wax model, core structure, casting setup, assembly, and finishing. On the contrary, thorough objective morphological and structural examinations, accurate compositional mapping, and very critical interpretation of the data are needed in order to reduce the range of the compatible technical interpretations. With the growing body of data comes an increasingly complex technological picture; some execution processes, which were once believed to be well-established practices in ancient times, today represent only a rather partial list of the methods used in Classical and Hellenistic art foundries.

Within this framework, the large bronzes of the Medici collections, exhibited at Florence’s National Museum of Archaeology, offer noteworthy examples of the methodological variability and of hitherto unknown peculiarities of ancient production, which significantly broaden the interpretational perspective. The Idolino from Pesaro (Iozzo 1998), the Minerva (Cygielman 2008) and the Chimaera of Arezzo (Siano et al. 2012; Siano 2013), the Arringatore (discovered in the environs of Lake Trasimeno), and the Horse’s Head (see essay 39 of this volume) have been thoroughly investigated during the last two decades. The present contribution discusses the main aspects of these studies along with their general implications in terms of methodological approach and knowledge of the ancient art foundry.